You may wonder why grammar has been out of fashion for some time, and why it has come back. The following very brief history may help you to put the recent grammar history into context. Click here for more details about developments in the twentieth century.
The ancient world took grammar teaching very seriously as a foundation for instruction in writing skills hence the link between the word grammar and the Greek gramma, 'written character'. Another perceived benefit was for thinking skills, where grammar was paired with logic and rhetoric.
The 18th century developed prescriptive grammar teaching, and tried to analyse English grammar as though it was the same as Latin grammar. Grammar teaching in school was mainly about (a) Latin and (b) avoiding 'errors' in English.
The 19th century developed historical linguistics as an important university research subject, with heavy emphasis on how languages are related but little impact on school grammar teaching. Meanwhile, English literature, in the struggle to establish itself as a university subject, saw language as its competitor for the title 'English'.
The early 20th century saw a steady decline in the quality of grammar teaching in English schools, and increasing calls for its abandonment. One reason for this decline was the complete lack of university-level research on English grammar, which led a government report in 1921 to conclude that it is impossible at the present juncture to teach English grammar in the schools for the simple reason that no one knows exactly what it is. Another reason was an energetic campaign on behalf of literature, presented as a liberal and liberating alternative to the the so-called 'grammar-grind'.
The later 20th century (from about 1960) saw two competing trends. Most schools stopped teaching grammar in English (and somewhat later in MFL); meanwhile, Latin teaching had largely died out too, so pupils no longer had any systematic instruction in grammar. This is the educational background of most young English teachers.
English grammar became an important research subject, partly driven by the overseas publishing market in English as a Foreign Language and partly by the intellectual impetus of theoretical linguistics. Most universities now have a department of Linguistics or of English Language where undergraduates study English grammar. This is the research background of the 'modern grammar' espoused by the KS3 Strategy.
The end of the 20th century (from about 1990) reversed the anti-grammar trends in school through a series of major reports on the perceived shortcomings of English teaching (which was clearly failing in its major task of teaching literacy). These reports all followed the first one (the Bullock Report of 1975) in replacing traditional grammar with a much more defensible kind of grammar which should be: a form of grammar which can describe language in use; relevant to all levels from the syntax of sentences through to the organisation of substantial texts; able to describe the considerable differences between spoken and written English; part of a wider "syllabus of language study". Central government decided to promote the teaching of grammar (though different ministers clearly had very different ideas of what this meant) as part of a drive to improve literacy standards. This decision is: controversial, because grammar teaching has had such a bad press for such a long time; challenging, because it really involves the introduction of a new subject rather than a simple re-instatement of an existing one, with all that this means for syllabus design and for teacher support.
Selasa, 22 Desember 2009
Parts Of Grammar
Word Classes
Introduction to word classes Words are fundamental units in every sentence, so we will begin by looking at these. Consider the words in the following sentence:
my brother drives a big car
We can tell almost instinctively that brother and car are the same type of word, and also that brother and drives are different types of words. By this we mean that brother and car belong to the same word class. Similarly, when we recognise that brother and drives are different types, we mean that they belong to different word classes.
Nouns
brother, car, David, house, London
Determiners
a, an, my, some, the
Verbs
be, drive, grow, sing, think
Adjectives
big, foolish, happy, talented, tidy
Preposition
at, in, of, over, with
Conjunctions
and, because, but, if, or
Minor word classes
There are some words which will not fit the criteria for any of them. Consider, for example, the word hello. It is clearly not a noun, or an adjective, or a verb, or indeed any of the classes we have looked at. It belongs to a minor word class, which we call formulaic expressions.
Formulaic Expressions
To express greetings, farewell, thanks, or apologies, we use a wide range of FORMULAIC EXPRESSIONS. These may consist of a single word or of several words acting as a unit. Here are some examples:
bye goodbye
hello farewell hi
so long excuse me thanks thank you thanks a lot
sorry pardon
Some formulaic expressions express agreement or disagreement with a previous speaker:
yes, yeah, no, okay, right, sure
INTERJECTIONS generally occur only in spoken English, or in the representation of speech in novels. They include the following:
ah, eh, hmm, oh, ouch, phew, shit, tsk, uhm, yuk
Interjections express a wide range of emotions, including surprise (oh!), exasperation (shit!), and disgust (yuk!).
Formulaic expressions, including interjections, are unvarying in their form, that is, they do not take any inflections.
Phrases
Defining a Phrase
A pronoun can sometimes replace a noun in a sentence. One of the examples we used was this: [Children] should watch less television
[They] should watch less television
Here it is certainly true that the pronoun they replaces the noun children. But consider:
[The children] should watch less television
[They] should watch less television
In this example, they does not replace children. Instead, it replaces the children, which is a unit consisting of a determiner and a noun. We refer to this unit as a NOUN PHRASE (NP), and we define it as any unit in which the central element is a noun.
Here is another example:
I like [the title of your book]
I like [it]
In this case, the pronoun it replaces not just a noun but a five-word noun phrase, the title of your book. So instead of saying that pronouns can replace nouns, it is more accurate to say that they can replace noun phrases.
Clauses & Sentences
Clause In more general use, however, phrases are integrated into longer units, which we call CLAUSES:
Q: What would you like to drink?
A: [I'd like coffee]
Q: How are you today?
A: [I'm fine]
Q: Where did you park the car?
A: [I parked the car behind the house]
Sentence
Most people recognise a sentence as a unit which begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (period), a question mark, or an exclamation mark. Of course, this applies only to written sentences. Sentences have also been defined notionally as units which express a "complete thought", though it is not at all clear what a "complete thought" is.
It is more useful to define a sentence syntactically, as a unit which consists of one or more clauses. According to this definition, the following examples are all sentences:
[1] Paul likes football
[2] You can borrow my pen if you need one
[3] Paul likes football and David likes chess
Form & functions
The word Form was one of the criteria we used to distinguish between word classes -- we saw that the form or "shape" of a word is often a good clue to its word class. Form denotes how something looks its shape or appearance, and what its structure is. When we say that the old man is an NP, or that the old man bought a newspaper is a finite clause, we are carrying out a formal analysis.
Introduction to word classes Words are fundamental units in every sentence, so we will begin by looking at these. Consider the words in the following sentence:
my brother drives a big car
We can tell almost instinctively that brother and car are the same type of word, and also that brother and drives are different types of words. By this we mean that brother and car belong to the same word class. Similarly, when we recognise that brother and drives are different types, we mean that they belong to different word classes.
Nouns
brother, car, David, house, London
Determiners
a, an, my, some, the
Verbs
be, drive, grow, sing, think
Adjectives
big, foolish, happy, talented, tidy
Preposition
at, in, of, over, with
Conjunctions
and, because, but, if, or
Minor word classes
There are some words which will not fit the criteria for any of them. Consider, for example, the word hello. It is clearly not a noun, or an adjective, or a verb, or indeed any of the classes we have looked at. It belongs to a minor word class, which we call formulaic expressions.
Formulaic Expressions
To express greetings, farewell, thanks, or apologies, we use a wide range of FORMULAIC EXPRESSIONS. These may consist of a single word or of several words acting as a unit. Here are some examples:
bye goodbye
hello farewell hi
so long excuse me thanks thank you thanks a lot
sorry pardon
Some formulaic expressions express agreement or disagreement with a previous speaker:
yes, yeah, no, okay, right, sure
INTERJECTIONS generally occur only in spoken English, or in the representation of speech in novels. They include the following:
ah, eh, hmm, oh, ouch, phew, shit, tsk, uhm, yuk
Interjections express a wide range of emotions, including surprise (oh!), exasperation (shit!), and disgust (yuk!).
Formulaic expressions, including interjections, are unvarying in their form, that is, they do not take any inflections.
Phrases
Defining a Phrase
A pronoun can sometimes replace a noun in a sentence. One of the examples we used was this: [Children] should watch less television
[They] should watch less television
Here it is certainly true that the pronoun they replaces the noun children. But consider:
[The children] should watch less television
[They] should watch less television
In this example, they does not replace children. Instead, it replaces the children, which is a unit consisting of a determiner and a noun. We refer to this unit as a NOUN PHRASE (NP), and we define it as any unit in which the central element is a noun.
Here is another example:
I like [the title of your book]
I like [it]
In this case, the pronoun it replaces not just a noun but a five-word noun phrase, the title of your book. So instead of saying that pronouns can replace nouns, it is more accurate to say that they can replace noun phrases.
Clauses & Sentences
Clause In more general use, however, phrases are integrated into longer units, which we call CLAUSES:
Q: What would you like to drink?
A: [I'd like coffee]
Q: How are you today?
A: [I'm fine]
Q: Where did you park the car?
A: [I parked the car behind the house]
Sentence
Most people recognise a sentence as a unit which begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (period), a question mark, or an exclamation mark. Of course, this applies only to written sentences. Sentences have also been defined notionally as units which express a "complete thought", though it is not at all clear what a "complete thought" is.
It is more useful to define a sentence syntactically, as a unit which consists of one or more clauses. According to this definition, the following examples are all sentences:
[1] Paul likes football
[2] You can borrow my pen if you need one
[3] Paul likes football and David likes chess
Form & functions
The word Form was one of the criteria we used to distinguish between word classes -- we saw that the form or "shape" of a word is often a good clue to its word class. Form denotes how something looks its shape or appearance, and what its structure is. When we say that the old man is an NP, or that the old man bought a newspaper is a finite clause, we are carrying out a formal analysis.
Jumat, 20 November 2009
Indonesia, Pelopor Lahirnya Revolusi Sistem Pengadilan di abad TI
Sekarang ini ada fenomena menarik untuk kita amati semua, terutama di kalangan akedemisi, yaitu kasus perseteruan antara KPK dan Polri. Fenomena ini bukan sekedar membongkar borok-borok di balik penegakan hukum dan sistem hukum di negara kita, tapi ternyata lebih dari itu. Apa itu? Yaitu telah lahirnya sebuah sistem Pengadilan yang terintegrasi dengan teknologi informasi (TI). Saya mengistilahkannya dengan nama "Sistem Pengadilan dengan Keterlibatan Masyarakat yang melek Teknologi Informasi".
Dalam sistem pengadilan yang konvensional, biasanya terdiri dari beberapa unsur: keberadaan perundangan yang relevan, hakim, jaksa, polisi, terdakwa dan dewan juri sebagai perwakilan masyarakat. Mereka semua akan berdebat dalam sebuah ruangan tertutup yang dibatasi tembok-tembok ruang pengadilan yang pengab. Informasi di dalam ruang pengadilan itu pun terbatas, hanya boleh ke luar atau ke publik bila Hakim mengizinkan saja.
Nah, sekarang sistem Pengadilan di abad Informasi yang menggunakan TI secara masif didalamnya. Di sistem ini, sang Hakim adalah 'Dewi Keadilan' yang sangat abstrak tapi semua meyakini kehadiran dan existensinya. Figur penegak hukum yang menjadi penuntut umum di Pengadilan itu, bukan hanya terdiri dari Jaksa dan Polisi, tetapi juga kekuatan-kekuatan yang pro-keadilan di masyarakat seperti LSM, organisasi-organisasi massa, parpol dan bahkan kekuatan dan kepentingan asing yang pro-keadilan dan kebenaran yang sedang terjadi di belahan dunia manapun. Siapa Dewan Jurinya? Siapa lagi kalau bukan seluruh elemen rakyat dan masyarakat yang melek TI dan paham hukum juga.
Yang menarik, perangkat perundangan yang dijadikan dasar dalam menuntut dan membela si terdakwa, bukan lagi sekedar rentetan UU dan aturan-aturan hukum yang terkait, tapi juga termasuk sistem nilai yang berkembang di masyarakat itu, misalnya nilai-nilai HAM yang universal, nilai-nilai agama, dan sistem nilai lainnya yang mereka jadikan acuan pandangan hidup selama ini.
Bagaimana dengan konsep ruangan tempat Pengadilan berlangsung? Konsep tentang ruang Pengadilan inipun berubah total. Ruangan Pengadilan abad TI adalah dunia maya yang tak berbatas. Di ruangan ini, perdebatan berlangsung 24 jam sehari, 7 hari seminggu dan 365 hari setahun. Non stop. Semua bukti-bukti bebas keluar masuk, semua testimoni dibiarkan beredar. Perangkat TI akan sangat berperan di dalam membantu keberlangsungan lalu-lintas dalam ruangan Pengadilan di dunia maya itu. Disana berperan televisi satelit yang senantiasa LIVE, media dan koran on-line, forum-forum diskusi di Internet, 'people power' ala dunia maya seperti 'facebooker' itu, kantor-kantor penasehat hukum on-line yang dilayani pakar-pakar hukum terkenal, dan pendapat-pendapat para netter di seluruh dunia tentang kasus yang sedang diangkat.
Indonesia, pertama kali mempraktekkan?
Kasus perseteruan KPK dan Polri di Indonesia saat ini, bukan hanya menjadi pusat perhatian 245 juta rakyat Indonesia saja. Tetapi hampir semua pakar-pakar hukum di seluruh dunia dan beberapa kalangan penduduk dunia yang tertarik, saat ini sedang memantau serius apa yang terjadi disini terkait kasus hukum itu. Kalau tidak percaya, cobalah googling di internet dalam berbagai bahasa asing, ternyata hampir setiap hari perkembangan kasus hukum KPK vs Polri itu mereka ikuti dan tayangkan di situs internetnya.
Cobalah perhatikan sejak awal, bagaimana TI berperan kuat sekali didalam membentuk opini masyarakat di Pengadilan dunia maya saat ini. Kalau kasus KPK vs Polri ini berlangsung tahun 1980-an dulu misalnya, saat dimana stasiun tivi hanya ada TVRI, jaringan telepon milik TELKOM yang terbatas dan mahal, belum ada internet, belum ada penyadap telepon yang canggih, belum ada koran on-line, belum ada warung kopi dunia maya tempat diskusi di forum-forum on-line, dan belum ada kebebasan berbicara yang luas dan bebas, pastilah kasus itu tak seheboh sekarang ini.
Tapi kini sudah berubah semua. Rakyat yang menjadi 'dewan juri' dalam sistem Pengadilan dunia maya ini, sangat berperan aktif. Dia juga disuguhi berbagai informasi, analisa, testimoni, barang bukti, bahkan 'acting' pelaku yang bak pemain sinetron itu. Semua disajikan melalui media televisi LIVE yang disiarkan via satelit ke seluruh dunia, melalui media/koran on-line semacam detik, vivanews, inilahdotcom atau forum diskusi seperti politikana, kaskus, forum KOMPAs dan sejenisnya. Sajian perangkat TI itu sangat masiv sekali. Sehingga 'dewan juri' terkadang sampai terbingung-bingung untuk bisa memilah-milah: mana kebenaran, mana rekayasa dan mana yang barang busuk.
Opini masyarakat yang terbentuk, ternyata punya kekuatan yang sangat dahsyat, bahkan bisa menjelma menjadi kekuatan 'people power' di dunia nyata, kalau kekuatan kekuasaan Pemerintah mencoba membendung arus opini yang terbentuk itu. Makanya, bahkan seorang Presiden pun beserta para punggawanya, tak mampu menghadapi derasnya opini yang terbentuk akibat peran teknologi informasi tadi. Sehingga, seorang Presiden di negeri ini, harus melepaskan sedikit kedaulatannya dengan membentuk sebuah tim independent, yang diperkirakan masih dipercaya oleh opini masyarakat yang telah terbentuk. Sekarang ini terus terang saja, kepercayaan masyarakat (TRUST) terhadap institusi hukum sudah ada di titik nadir. Itu selangkah saja lagi untuk masuk ke wilayah kepercayaan publik kepada institusi kekuasaan yang sedang memerintah.
Tapi jangan dituduh bahwa Pengadilan dunia maya itu akan berjalan tidak adil dan berat sebelah. Justru di pengadilan inilah semuanya menjadi transparan. Rakyat yang menjadi 'dewan juri' di pengadilan itu, akhirnya akan memvonis berdasarkan semua pengetahuan dari informasi yang diperolehnya di dunia maya tadi. Mereka akan memutuskan bersalah atau tidak bersalah (guilty or not guilty) pada si pesakitan dalam pengadilan tadi dengan dasar keputusan seadil-adilnya. Dan kalau semua telah meyakini konsep yang selama ini diterima secara universal, bahwa "Suara Rakyat adalah Suara Tuhan", maka menjadi tak sulit untuk menolak dan menerima apapun yang telah diputuskan rakyat dalam Sidang Pengadilan di dunia maya yang mereka bentuk itu. Dan pastilah, Sang Hakim, yaitu "Dewi Keadilan' yang diatas sana, akan merestui keputusan mereka.
Apa yang sedang saya ceritakan ini, kini telah berlangsung di negeri kita tercinta, INDONESIA. Makanya tidak salah kalau dikatakan, negeri ini telah mempelopori lahirnya sebuah sistem pengadilan di dunia maya di abad informasi sekarang imi. Kita patut bangga untuk semua ini.
Dalam sistem pengadilan yang konvensional, biasanya terdiri dari beberapa unsur: keberadaan perundangan yang relevan, hakim, jaksa, polisi, terdakwa dan dewan juri sebagai perwakilan masyarakat. Mereka semua akan berdebat dalam sebuah ruangan tertutup yang dibatasi tembok-tembok ruang pengadilan yang pengab. Informasi di dalam ruang pengadilan itu pun terbatas, hanya boleh ke luar atau ke publik bila Hakim mengizinkan saja.
Nah, sekarang sistem Pengadilan di abad Informasi yang menggunakan TI secara masif didalamnya. Di sistem ini, sang Hakim adalah 'Dewi Keadilan' yang sangat abstrak tapi semua meyakini kehadiran dan existensinya. Figur penegak hukum yang menjadi penuntut umum di Pengadilan itu, bukan hanya terdiri dari Jaksa dan Polisi, tetapi juga kekuatan-kekuatan yang pro-keadilan di masyarakat seperti LSM, organisasi-organisasi massa, parpol dan bahkan kekuatan dan kepentingan asing yang pro-keadilan dan kebenaran yang sedang terjadi di belahan dunia manapun. Siapa Dewan Jurinya? Siapa lagi kalau bukan seluruh elemen rakyat dan masyarakat yang melek TI dan paham hukum juga.
Yang menarik, perangkat perundangan yang dijadikan dasar dalam menuntut dan membela si terdakwa, bukan lagi sekedar rentetan UU dan aturan-aturan hukum yang terkait, tapi juga termasuk sistem nilai yang berkembang di masyarakat itu, misalnya nilai-nilai HAM yang universal, nilai-nilai agama, dan sistem nilai lainnya yang mereka jadikan acuan pandangan hidup selama ini.
Bagaimana dengan konsep ruangan tempat Pengadilan berlangsung? Konsep tentang ruang Pengadilan inipun berubah total. Ruangan Pengadilan abad TI adalah dunia maya yang tak berbatas. Di ruangan ini, perdebatan berlangsung 24 jam sehari, 7 hari seminggu dan 365 hari setahun. Non stop. Semua bukti-bukti bebas keluar masuk, semua testimoni dibiarkan beredar. Perangkat TI akan sangat berperan di dalam membantu keberlangsungan lalu-lintas dalam ruangan Pengadilan di dunia maya itu. Disana berperan televisi satelit yang senantiasa LIVE, media dan koran on-line, forum-forum diskusi di Internet, 'people power' ala dunia maya seperti 'facebooker' itu, kantor-kantor penasehat hukum on-line yang dilayani pakar-pakar hukum terkenal, dan pendapat-pendapat para netter di seluruh dunia tentang kasus yang sedang diangkat.
Indonesia, pertama kali mempraktekkan?
Kasus perseteruan KPK dan Polri di Indonesia saat ini, bukan hanya menjadi pusat perhatian 245 juta rakyat Indonesia saja. Tetapi hampir semua pakar-pakar hukum di seluruh dunia dan beberapa kalangan penduduk dunia yang tertarik, saat ini sedang memantau serius apa yang terjadi disini terkait kasus hukum itu. Kalau tidak percaya, cobalah googling di internet dalam berbagai bahasa asing, ternyata hampir setiap hari perkembangan kasus hukum KPK vs Polri itu mereka ikuti dan tayangkan di situs internetnya.
Cobalah perhatikan sejak awal, bagaimana TI berperan kuat sekali didalam membentuk opini masyarakat di Pengadilan dunia maya saat ini. Kalau kasus KPK vs Polri ini berlangsung tahun 1980-an dulu misalnya, saat dimana stasiun tivi hanya ada TVRI, jaringan telepon milik TELKOM yang terbatas dan mahal, belum ada internet, belum ada penyadap telepon yang canggih, belum ada koran on-line, belum ada warung kopi dunia maya tempat diskusi di forum-forum on-line, dan belum ada kebebasan berbicara yang luas dan bebas, pastilah kasus itu tak seheboh sekarang ini.
Tapi kini sudah berubah semua. Rakyat yang menjadi 'dewan juri' dalam sistem Pengadilan dunia maya ini, sangat berperan aktif. Dia juga disuguhi berbagai informasi, analisa, testimoni, barang bukti, bahkan 'acting' pelaku yang bak pemain sinetron itu. Semua disajikan melalui media televisi LIVE yang disiarkan via satelit ke seluruh dunia, melalui media/koran on-line semacam detik, vivanews, inilahdotcom atau forum diskusi seperti politikana, kaskus, forum KOMPAs dan sejenisnya. Sajian perangkat TI itu sangat masiv sekali. Sehingga 'dewan juri' terkadang sampai terbingung-bingung untuk bisa memilah-milah: mana kebenaran, mana rekayasa dan mana yang barang busuk.
Opini masyarakat yang terbentuk, ternyata punya kekuatan yang sangat dahsyat, bahkan bisa menjelma menjadi kekuatan 'people power' di dunia nyata, kalau kekuatan kekuasaan Pemerintah mencoba membendung arus opini yang terbentuk itu. Makanya, bahkan seorang Presiden pun beserta para punggawanya, tak mampu menghadapi derasnya opini yang terbentuk akibat peran teknologi informasi tadi. Sehingga, seorang Presiden di negeri ini, harus melepaskan sedikit kedaulatannya dengan membentuk sebuah tim independent, yang diperkirakan masih dipercaya oleh opini masyarakat yang telah terbentuk. Sekarang ini terus terang saja, kepercayaan masyarakat (TRUST) terhadap institusi hukum sudah ada di titik nadir. Itu selangkah saja lagi untuk masuk ke wilayah kepercayaan publik kepada institusi kekuasaan yang sedang memerintah.
Tapi jangan dituduh bahwa Pengadilan dunia maya itu akan berjalan tidak adil dan berat sebelah. Justru di pengadilan inilah semuanya menjadi transparan. Rakyat yang menjadi 'dewan juri' di pengadilan itu, akhirnya akan memvonis berdasarkan semua pengetahuan dari informasi yang diperolehnya di dunia maya tadi. Mereka akan memutuskan bersalah atau tidak bersalah (guilty or not guilty) pada si pesakitan dalam pengadilan tadi dengan dasar keputusan seadil-adilnya. Dan kalau semua telah meyakini konsep yang selama ini diterima secara universal, bahwa "Suara Rakyat adalah Suara Tuhan", maka menjadi tak sulit untuk menolak dan menerima apapun yang telah diputuskan rakyat dalam Sidang Pengadilan di dunia maya yang mereka bentuk itu. Dan pastilah, Sang Hakim, yaitu "Dewi Keadilan' yang diatas sana, akan merestui keputusan mereka.
Apa yang sedang saya ceritakan ini, kini telah berlangsung di negeri kita tercinta, INDONESIA. Makanya tidak salah kalau dikatakan, negeri ini telah mempelopori lahirnya sebuah sistem pengadilan di dunia maya di abad informasi sekarang imi. Kita patut bangga untuk semua ini.
Selasa, 10 November 2009
Sample Letter of Ordering Goods
Mrs. Smith,
Director
Catalog Online
California, WA 71612
Dear Mr. Brown:
Would you please send me the following used catalog via COD? According to your Web site, orders need to include the title, author, and publisher.
Title: "Alone Again"
Author: Farah Queen
Publisher: Jill and Co.
Title: "cosmetic"
Author: Patrick Andersson
Publisher: Nature Ltd.
Title: "Christmas Myth"
Author: Margareta
Publisher: Smoothers
Thank you very much,
(signature here)
Dony,
Professor, OUS
Director
Catalog Online
California, WA 71612
Dear Mr. Brown:
Would you please send me the following used catalog via COD? According to your Web site, orders need to include the title, author, and publisher.
Title: "Alone Again"
Author: Farah Queen
Publisher: Jill and Co.
Title: "cosmetic"
Author: Patrick Andersson
Publisher: Nature Ltd.
Title: "Christmas Myth"
Author: Margareta
Publisher: Smoothers
Thank you very much,
(signature here)
Dony,
Professor, OUS
Senin, 02 November 2009
TUGAS BAHASA INGGRIS
If Conditional Sentence
IF Clause Type 1
Form
if + Simple Present, will-Future
Example: If I hurt my head, I'll take the medicine.
The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma.
Example: I would take medication if I am sick head
Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative. See Simple Present und will-Future on how to form negative sentences.
Example:
If I had not met with him this morning, tonight I will phone your house.
Use
Conditional Sentences Type I refer to the future. An action in the future will only happen if a certain condition is fulfilled by that time. We don't know for sure whether the condition actually will be fulfilled or not, but the conditions seems rather realistic – so we think it is likely to happen.
Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation.
I want to send an invitation to a friend. I just have to find her address. I am quite sure, however, that I will find it.
Example: If John has the money, he will buy a Ferrari.
I know John very well and I know that he earns a lot of money and that he loves Ferraris. So I think it is very likely that sooner or later he will have the money to buy a Ferrari.
IF Clause Type 2
Form
if + Simple Past, main clause with Conditional I (= would + Infinitive)
Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.
The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma.
Example: I would send her an invitation if I found her address.
Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative. See Simple Past und Conditional I on how to form negative sentences.
Example: If I had a lot of money, I wouldn’t stay here.
Were instead of Was
In IF Clauses Type II, we usually use ‚were‘ – even if the pronoun is I, he, she or it –.
Example: If I were you, I would not do this.
Use
Conditional Sentences Type II refer to situations in the present. An action could happen if the present situation were different. I don't really expect the situation to change, however. I just imagine „what would happen if …“
Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.
I would like to send an invitation to a friend. I have looked everywhere for her address, but I cannot find it. So now I think it is rather unlikely that I will eventually find her address.
Example: If John had the money, he would buy a Ferrari.
I know John very well and I know that he doesn't have much money, but he loves Ferraris. He would like to own a Ferrari (in his dreams). But I think it is very unlikely that he will have the money to buy one in the near future.
IF Clause Type 3
Form
if + Past Perfect, main clause with Conditional II
Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.
The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma.
Example: I would have sent her an invitation if I had found her address.
Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative. See Past Perfect and Conditional II on how to form negative sentences.
Example: If I hadn’t studied, I wouldn’t have passed my exams.
Use
Conditional Sentences Type III refer to situations in the past. An action could have happened in the past if a certain condition had been fulfilled. Things were different then, however. We just imagine, what would have happened if the situation had been fulfilled.
Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.
Sometime in the past, I wanted to send an invitation to a friend. I didn't find her address, however. So in the end I didn't send her an invitation.
Example: If John had had the money, he would have bought a Ferrari.
I knew John very well and I know that he never had much money, but he loved Ferraris. He would have loved to own a Ferrari, but he never had the money to buy one.
Example
* If my father had time next week, we will go fishing.
* If the weather isn't too bad tomorrow, we will play golf.
* You’ll pass the exams if you study hard.
* If he did not study harder, he would get a worse score.
* If we were knew more about history, we didn't would afraid of the test.
* If I miss the buss this afternoon, I'll get the taxi.
* If I had more money, would have you marry me?
* Please don't sign this contract before I check them.
* You would have a lot of friends, if you didn't so mean.
* If she had bought a new house, she would have be happy.
Selasa, 20 Oktober 2009
Demand letter
MAJU MUNDUR COMPANY
13145,JAKARTA,INDONESIA
20 October 2009
Hi-fashion Garment Ltd
Unit 398
Surya Citra Industrial Estate
Dear Sir or Madam
Request for Catalogue
Please send me your current catalogue.
Your company was recommended to me by Ms. Echi of Far Eastern Logistics. Our African customer is interested in importing a range of printed 100% cotton cloth.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours
Sudibyo Agus P
Sudibyo Agus P
Merchandiser
13145,JAKARTA,INDONESIA
20 October 2009
Hi-fashion Garment Ltd
Unit 398
Surya Citra Industrial Estate
Dear Sir or Madam
Request for Catalogue
Please send me your current catalogue.
Your company was recommended to me by Ms. Echi of Far Eastern Logistics. Our African customer is interested in importing a range of printed 100% cotton cloth.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours
Sudibyo Agus P
Sudibyo Agus P
Merchandiser
Surat Permintaan
MAJU Mundur PERUSAHAAN
13145, JAKARTA, INDONESIA
Hi-fashion Garment Pt
398 unit
Surya Citra Industrial Estate
Dear Sir atau Madam
Permintaan Katalog
Kirimkan saya katalog Anda saat ini. Perusahaan Anda direkomendasikan kepada saya oleh Ms Echi dari Timur Jauh Logistik. Pelanggan Afrika kami tertarik untuk mengimpor berbagai dicetak 100% kain katun.
Saya berharap untuk mendengar dari Anda.
Yours
Agus Sudibyo P
Agus Sudibyo P
Merchandiser
13145, JAKARTA, INDONESIA
Hi-fashion Garment Pt
398 unit
Surya Citra Industrial Estate
Dear Sir atau Madam
Permintaan Katalog
Kirimkan saya katalog Anda saat ini. Perusahaan Anda direkomendasikan kepada saya oleh Ms Echi dari Timur Jauh Logistik. Pelanggan Afrika kami tertarik untuk mengimpor berbagai dicetak 100% kain katun.
Saya berharap untuk mendengar dari Anda.
Yours
Agus Sudibyo P
Agus Sudibyo P
Merchandiser
Selasa, 13 Oktober 2009
example inquiry letter
October 13, 2009
Jakarta
021846431
Golden Bread Company
Duta Kranji
Dear Mr.Zacky:
Construction on the new employee cafeteria at Better Widget Makers, Inc. is nearing
completion and I am looking for a supplier capable of fulfilling our weekly bakery needs.
Do you have an information packet that would help me project the cost of doing business
with your company? We will need daily deliveries of pastries, pies, dinner rolls and
sandwich bread. Our facility operates 24/7, Monday through Friday, with a flextime
workforce of 1,500 employees. To complete my operational budget I will need the
following information:
• Wholesale price sheets
• Quantity cost breaks
• Annual contract discounts
• Delivery and or any other service charges.
To submit my proposal to the finance committee at their October 20th meeting I will need
to receive your information by the 10th. I will also need to meet with you after reviewing
the requested materials. Please call me for an appointment at your earliest convenience.
My personal extension is 216-8080, # 29.
In keeping with long-standing policy we would like to place this contract locally. I look
forward to working with you and am hopeful that the Golden Bread Company can fulfill
our needs.
Sincerely,
Sudibyo Agus Priambodo
Purchasing Agent
Jakarta
021846431
Golden Bread Company
Duta Kranji
Dear Mr.Zacky:
Construction on the new employee cafeteria at Better Widget Makers, Inc. is nearing
completion and I am looking for a supplier capable of fulfilling our weekly bakery needs.
Do you have an information packet that would help me project the cost of doing business
with your company? We will need daily deliveries of pastries, pies, dinner rolls and
sandwich bread. Our facility operates 24/7, Monday through Friday, with a flextime
workforce of 1,500 employees. To complete my operational budget I will need the
following information:
• Wholesale price sheets
• Quantity cost breaks
• Annual contract discounts
• Delivery and or any other service charges.
To submit my proposal to the finance committee at their October 20th meeting I will need
to receive your information by the 10th. I will also need to meet with you after reviewing
the requested materials. Please call me for an appointment at your earliest convenience.
My personal extension is 216-8080, # 29.
In keeping with long-standing policy we would like to place this contract locally. I look
forward to working with you and am hopeful that the Golden Bread Company can fulfill
our needs.
Sincerely,
Sudibyo Agus Priambodo
Purchasing Agent
Langganan:
Postingan (Atom)